Introductory Chapter: Plant Extracts (2024)

What is Open Access?

Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.

Our Authors and Editors

We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.

Content Alerts

Brief introduction to this section that descibes Open Access especially from an IntechOpen perspective

How it Works Manage preferences

Contact

Want to get in touch? Contact our London head office or media team here

Careers

Our team is growing all the time, so we’re always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing.

Home > Books > Plant Extracts

Special Offer!

Applies to all print copy prices | Offer ends 15 December 2024
Enter the code 20PRINT to unlock the offer

Introductory Chapter: Plant Extracts (2)Open access

Written By

Aman Dekebo

Submitted: 30 July 2018 Published: 04 September 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.85493

IntechOpen Plant Extracts Edited by Aman Dekebo

From the Edited Volume

Plant Extracts

Edited by Aman Dekebo

Book Details Order Print

To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India:
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd. www.cbspd.com | customercare@cbspd.com

Chapter metrics overview

2,717 Chapter Downloads

View Full Metrics

Author Information

Show +

  • Aman Dekebo*

    • Department of Applied Chemistry, Adama Science and Technology University, Adama, Ethiopia

*Address all correspondence to: aman_d00@yahoo.com

1. Introduction

Humans are dependent on plants for basic needs such as food, clothing, and shelter for centuries [1]. Plants have also been used as arrow and dart poisons for hunting, poisons for murder, hallucinogens used for ritualistic purposes, stimulants for endurance, and hunger suppression, as well as inebriants and medicines [1]. Medicinal plants have been a source of wide variety of biologically active compounds for many centuries and used extensively as crude material or as pure compounds for treating various disease conditions. Relatively 1–10% of plants are used by humans out of estimated 250,000–500,000 species of plants on Earth [2]. Plant-based traditional medicine plays a key role in the development and advancement of modern studies by serving as a starting point for the development of novelties in drug discovery [3]. Various modern drugs were extracted from traditional medicinal plants through the use of plant material following the ethno botanical leads from indigenous cures used by traditional medical systems [4]. In developing countries and rural societies, the use of medicinal plants is both a valuable resource and necessity, and furthermore, it provides a real alternative for primary healthcare systems [5].

Plants were once the primary source of medicines in the world and since then, plants continue to provide humans with new remedies as 50% of all drugs in clinical use in the world are derived from natural products, of which higher plants contribute 25% of the total [5, 6]. The use of plants as medicines predates written human history. Knowledge of plant use was widespread in ancient civilizations. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, plants were the main therapeutic agents used by humans, and even today, their role in medicine is still relevant. It was estimated by the WHO that around 80% of the world population relied on medicinal plants as their primary healthcare source [7] and the demand is increasing in developing countries. For example, traditional medicine (TM) practices have been used for thousands of years by people in Africa, China, India and many other countries [8]. Even in developed countries, plant-based traditional medicines are often termed complementary or alternative medicine (CAM), and their use has increased steadily. For example, in the USA alone, the total estimated that herbal sales for 2005 were $4.4 billion, a significant increase from $2.5 billion in 1995 [9].

The plant chemicals used for arrow or dart poisoning purposes are largely the secondary metabolites, which are derived biosynthetically from plant primary metabolites (e.g., carbohydrates, amino acids, and lipids) and are not directly involved in the growth, development, or reproduction of plants. Secondary metabolites can be classified into several groups according to their chemical classes, such as alkaloids, terpenoids, tannins, phenolics, and others [10]. Most of these secondary metabolites are used for plants defense against predators.

Medicinal plants are now more focused than ever because they have the capability of producing many benefits to society especially for medicinal uses. The medicinal power of these plants is due to their phytochemicals which can cause definite physiological actions on the human body. Phytochemicals are natural compounds which occur in plants such as medicinal plants, vegetables, and fruits that work with nutrients and fibers to act against diseases or more specifically to protect against diseases [11, 12]. Medicinal plants because of their accessibility and affordable health care are an important source of livelihoods for indigenous and rural populations. They are also the source of many active ingredients for modern pharmaceuticals. Between 50,000 and 80,000 flowering plants are used for medicine worldwide, many of them are collected from wild resources [12]. Herb as a group of plants was also used as food (vegetables) and flavors for hundreds of years in many parts of the world. Herbs have been traditionally regarded as natural remedies for common ailments of a human. Nearly all cultures and civilizations from ancient times to the present day have used herbal medicines which are antimicrobial sources to cure infections [13]. Conventional antifungal and antibacterial treatment of infections becomes inefficient to cure patients, providing resistance of microorganisms.

1.1. Plant-derived drugs and various clinical trial stages

Table 1 shows compounds or extracts are drugs or on the process of clinical trial stage derived from plants and their therapeutic use.

DrugPlant sourceDisease to treatReference
GalantamineGalanthus woronowii LosinskAlzheimer’s disease[14, 15]
ApomorphineParkinson’s disease[16]
Tiotropium bromideObstructive pulmonary disease[17]
VareniclineSmoking cessation[18, 19, 20]
Betulinic acidMany plantsAnticancer, antibacterial, antimalarial, anti-HIV, anthelminthic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties[21, 22]
Combretastatin A4 phosphateCombretum caffrum KuntzeAnaplastic thyroid cancer[23]
Huperzine AHuperzia serrata (Thunb. ex Murray) TrevisAlzheimer’s disease[24]
Ingenol 3-angelateEuphorbia peplus L.Warts and actinic keratoses[25]
MorphinePapaver somniferumPain[26]
ProtopanaxadiolPanax ginsengApoptotic effect on cancer cells[27]
HarpagosideHarpagophytum procumbens DCPain[28]
Harpagophytum procumbens extractHarpagophytum procumbensHip and knee osteoarthritis[28]
Flavocoxid (Limbrel) blend of flavonoidsScutellaria baicalensis Georgi and Acacia catechu WilldOsteoarthritis[1]
Ginkgo extractGinkgo biloba L.Alzheimer’s disease[29]
Mistletoe extract (Iscador)Viscum album L.Various cancer[30]
Sativex extractCannabis sativa L.Neuropathic pain[31]

Table 1.

Compounds and extracts derived from plants used as drugs or on the process of clinical trial stage.

Advertisement

2. Uses of plant extracts in food industry

Plants have also been used in the production of stimulant beverages, such as tea, coffee, cocoa, and cola, and intoxicants, such as wine, beer, and kava, in many cultures since ancient times. Tea (Camellia sinensis Kuntze) was first consumed in ancient China [1], while coffee (Coffea arabica L.) was initially found in Ethiopia from the region called Keffa and then cultivated in Yemen for commercial purposes in the ninth century [32]. The Aztec nobility is used to consume bitter beverages containing raw cocoa beans (Theobroma cacao L.), red peppers, and various herbs [32]. The active components of these stimulants are methylated xanthine derivatives, called caffeine, theophylline, and theobromine, major components of coffee, tea, and cocoa, respectively [8].

Studies have shown that a low to moderate consumption of red wine is important for reduction of mortality caused by cardiovascular disease and cancer [33]. This health benefit of wine has been suggested to be due to the presence of a compound called resveratrol present in the skin of grapes [34].

Kava, a beverage made from the root of Piper methysticum Roxb., has been a popular intoxicating beverage in Polynesia for centuries [35]. However, in the Western world, kava is not normally consumed directly but has gained popularity as a botanical dietary supplement to ease the symptoms of stress, anxiety, and depression [36]. A study has shown that the anxiolytic activity of kava extract may be mediated in part by the kavalactone and dihydrokavain [37].

Advertisement

3. Extraction methods

Medicinal plants are becoming very important due to their uses mainly as a source of therapeutic compounds that may lead to the development of novel drugs. Most of these compounds such as phenolics and flavonoids have been reported to be important for on health including cancer prevention [38]. High content of phenolic and flavonoids in medicinal plants has been correlated with their antioxidant activities that are important in prevention of the development of age-related disease, especially those related to oxidative stress [39]. Phytochemicals in medicinal plants are very important in pharmaceuticals and cosmeceutical industry [39].

Extraction is the separation of medicinally mixture of many plant metabolites, such as alkaloids, glycosides, phenolics, terpenoids, and flavonoids using selective solvents through standard procedures [40]. The aim of all solvent extraction methods is to separate the soluble plant metabolites, leaving behind the insoluble cellular marc. The following are the widely used extraction techniques.

3.1. Maceration, infusion, percolation, and decoction

Maceration extraction method is used in wine making and also used for extraction of bioactive compounds from plants [39]. Maceration involved soaking plant materials (coarse or powdered) in a stoppered container with a solvent and allowed to stand at room temperature for at least 3days with frequent agitation [40], which is followed by pressing or straining and filtration. In conventional methods, heat is transferred through convection and conduction, and the solvent is selected based on the compound aimed to be extracted [40]. Infusion and decoction use the same principle as maceration but both are soaked in cold or boiled water [39].

Decoction is only suitable for extracting heat-stable compounds, hard plant materials such as roots and barks, and the process usually yielded more oil-soluble compounds compared to maceration and infusion [39].

3.2. Soxhlet extraction or hot continuous extraction

In this method, the sample is ground and placed in a porous bag called thimble made from a strong filter paper or cellulose. The thimble containing the sample is placed in thimble chamber of the Soxhlet apparatus. Extraction solvents are heated in the bottom flask, then vaporized into the sample thimble, condensed in the condenser, and dripped back which result in extraction of plant secondary metabolites in a good yield.

3.3. Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE)

This extraction method uses microwave energy to facilitate partition of analytes from the sample matrix into the solvent [41]. Microwave radiation interacts with dipoles of polar and polarizable materials such as solvent and a plant sample results heating near the surface of the materials and heat is transferred by conduction. Dipole rotation of the molecules induced by microwave electromagnetic disrupts hydrogen bonding enhancing the migration of dissolved ions and promotes solvent penetration into the matrix [42].

3.4. Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) or sonication extraction

This method makes use of ultrasound ranging from 20 to 2000kHz [40]. The mechanic effect of the ultrasound increases the surface contact between solvents and samples [39]. The ultrasound alters and disrupts the physical and chemical properties of the sample and facilitates release of compounds and enhancing mass transport of the solvents into the plant cells [43].

3.5. Accelerated solvent extraction (ASE)

Accelerated solvent extraction is more efficient solvent extraction method compared to maceration and Soxhlet extraction methods. This method makes use of minimum amount of solvent compared to maceration and Soxhlet extraction methods [39]. In ASE, sample is packed with inert packing material such as sand in the stainless steel to prevent sample from aggregating and blocking of the system tubing [39, 44]. The method controls temperature and pressure for each individual sample and the extraction completes in less than an hour [39].

3.6. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE)

Supercritical fluid is a substance that shares the physical properties of both gas and liquid at its critical point. Temperature and pressure are the determinant factors that push a substance into its critical region [39]. Supercritical fluid behaves more like a gas but have the solvating characteristic of a liquid. For instance, CO2 becomes supercritical fluid at above 31.1°C and 7380kPa. Interest in supercritical-CO2 extraction is quite interesting due to its excellent solvation power for nonpolar analytes. Additionally, CO2 is readily available, cheap and has low toxicity [39]. Supercritical-CO2 has poor solubility for polar compounds. The solubility of supercritical-CO2 for polar compounds can be enhanced by adding small amount of ethanol and methanol [39].

3.7. Enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE)

In some plants, some phytochemicals in their matrices are dispersed in cell cytoplasm, and secondary metabolites are retained in the polysaccharide-lignin network by hydrogen or hydrophobic bonding and are not accessible with a solvent extraction process [45]. Enzymatic pre-treatment has been considered as an effective way to release bounded compounds and increase overall yield [46]. Specific enzymes such as cellulase, a-amylase, and pectinase added during extraction enhance recovery by breaking the cell wall and hydrolyzing the structural polysaccharides and lipid bodies [46, 47]. There are two approaches for enzyme-assisted extraction method namely enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction (EAAE) and enzyme-assisted cold pressing (EACP) [48]. EAAE methods have been employed mainly for the extraction of oils from various seeds [46, 49, 50, 51]. In EACP method, enzymes are used to hydrolyze the seed cell wall of a plant [52].

3.8. Extraction of volatile organic compounds

Distillation is the separation process of the components of a mixture of two or more liquids due to their difference in their vapor pressure. The aims of distillation process are to obtain an essential oil. Hydro-distillation (HD), steam distillation (SD), simultaneous distillation solvent extraction (SDE), microwave-assisted hydro-distillation (MWHD), supercritical fluid (CO2) extraction (SFE), purge and trap, and solid phase microextraction (SPME) [53] were employed to extract volatile organic compounds from fresh plant parts. Among these techniques, HD, SD, and SDE are classical and conventional methods for sampling bioactive volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Hydrodistillation is the distillation technique carried out either by boiling the plant materials or essential oil with water by creating the steam. The composition of the oil distillates from a mixture of two liquids depends primarily upon the boiling points or the vapor pressure at the distillation temperature.

Problems connected with conventional methods include long extraction times, large amounts of solvents, and multiple steps. Additionally, many unstable volatile organic compounds may be thermally decomposed and degraded during the thermal extraction or distillation. Because of their simplicity, these methods are still in use to extract fragrance-and-aroma oils from plants. Purge and trap, SFE, and SPME have aroused much attention from analysts as they are environment friendly sampling techniques for bioactive VOCs [53].

3.8.1. Purge and trap

Purge and trap also known as dynamic headspace uses ultra-purified inert gas as the carrier gas to pass through samples continuously to carry out VOCs, and then VOCs are trapped in the trap that contains the sorbent such as Tenax [54]. The type of sorbent in the trap can be varied in order, and purge and trap can achieve high selectivity for different biological VOCs. Properly prolonging sampling time could also improve the enrichment effect [53]. This method has been employed for sampling not only VOCs but also semi-VOCs [55].

3.8.2. Solid phase microextraction

Solid phase microextraction (SPME), developed by Arthur and Pawliszyn [56] and Pawliszyn [57], has been considered as one of the best inventions in extraction of volatile organic compounds in the field of sample [53]. SPME integrates the extraction, concentration, and introduction simultaneously, and the use of this method results in reducing preparation time and simultaneously increasing sensitivity over other extractions [53]. Because of all these advantages, SPME could be considered as a simple, efficient and environment friendly sample extraction method, which has been used in the environmental [58], biological [59], pharmaceutical [60], field analyses [61], and fragrance-and-aroma study [62]. Additionally, headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) has been considered as an appropriate method for sample preparation in the fragrance and aroma analysis [62].

Advertisement

4. Conclusions and future trends

Plants have provided humans with many of their essential needs, including life-saving agents for centuries. As only 1–10% of the available higher plant species have been screened biologically, drug discovery from plants should remain an essential component in the search for new medicines [2], particularly with the development of highly sensitive and versatile analytical methods which include search further for convenient extraction methods in future. Botanical insecticides are also getting a lot of attentions in the integrated pest management to produce healthy fruits, vegetables, and crops [63]. Natural ingredients are also gaining popularity, and the use of plant extracts in cosmetic formulation increases [64]. A cosmetic formulation from natural origin can protect the skin against exogenous or endogenous harmful agents and help to remedy many skin-related diseases [64]. Essential oils have been used for thousands of years, as incense, perfumes, cosmetics, and for their medicinal and culinary applications [64]. This book aimed to cover aforementioned areas and others of applications of plant extracts in depth. It is recommended to conduct international multidisciplinary projects for drug discovery from natural sources, and proper utilization of plants in various areas mentioned in this book is important. Thus, there is a need for cooperative effort among scientists to make use of benefits from these resources.

References

  1. 1. Salim AA, Chin Y-W, Kinghorn AD. Drug Discovery from Plants. Bioactive Molecules and Medicinal Plants. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 2008. pp. 1-24
  2. 2. Kunzelman JI, Durako MJ, Kenworthy WJ, Stapleton A, Wright JL. Irradiance-induced changes in the photobiology of Halophila johnsonii. Marine Biology. 2005;148(2):241
  3. 3. Wright CW. Plant derived antimalarial agents: New leads and challenges. Phytochemistry Reviews. 2005;4(1):55-61
  4. 4. Verma S, Singh S. Current and future status of herbal medicines. Veterinary World. 2008;1(11):347
  5. 5. Hayta S, Tasar N, Cakilcioglu U, Gedik O. Morphological, karyological features and pollen morphology of endemic Ebenus haussknechtii Bornm. Ex hub.-Mor. From Turkey: A traditional medicinal herb. Journal of Herbal Medicine. 2014;4(3):141-146
  6. 6. van Wyk A, Prinsloo G. Medicinal plant harvesting, sustainability and cultivation in South Africa. Biological Conservation. 2018;227:335-342
  7. 7. Farnsworth NR, Akerele O, Bingel AS, Soejarto DD, Guo Z. Medicinal plants in therapy. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 1985;63(6):965
  8. 8. Sneader W. Drug Discovery: A History. The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2005
  9. 9. Blumenthal M. The 2002 top-selling herbal supplements in food, drug and mass market retail outlets. HerbalGram. 2003;58:71
  10. 10. Harborne J. Methods of Plant Analysis. Phytochemical Methods. Dordrecht: Springer; 1984. pp. 1-36
  11. 11. Moshi MJ, Mhame PP. Legislation on medicinal plants in Africa. In: Medicinal Plant Research in Africa. Elsevier; 2013. pp. 843-858
  12. 12. Akinmoladun AC, Ibukun EO, Afor E, Obuotor EM, Farombi EO. Phytochemical constituent and antioxidant activity of extract from the leaves of Ocimum gratissimum. Scientific Research and Essays. 2007;2(5):163-166
  13. 13. Lino A, Deogracious O. The in-vitro antibacterial activity of Annona senegalensis, Securidacca longipendiculata and Steganotaenia araliacea-Ugandan medicinal plants. African Health Sciences. 2006;6(1):31-35
  14. 14. Butler MS. The role of natural product chemistry in drug discovery. Journal of Natural Products. 2004;67(12):2141-2153
  15. 15. Howes MJR, Perry NS, Houghton PJ. Plants with traditional uses and activities, relevant to the management of Alzheimer's disease and other cognitive disorders. Phytotherapy Research. 2003;17(1):1-18
  16. 16. Cohen MH, Williams GA, Sridhara R, Chen G, McGuinn WD, Morse D, et al. United States Food and Drug Administration drug approval summary: Gefitinib (ZD1839; Iressa) tablets. Clinical Cancer Research. 2004;10(4):1212-1218
  17. 17. Koumis T, Samuel S. Tiotropium bromide: A new long-acting bronchodilator for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Clinical Therapeutics. 2005;27(4):377-392
  18. 18. Niaura R, Jones C, Kirkpatrick P. Varenicline. London: Nature Publishing Group; 2006
  19. 19. Feret B, Orr K. Varenicline: An oral partial nicotine agonist for smoking cessation. Cleveland, Ohio: Formulary; 2006;41(6):265
  20. 20. Mihalak KB, Carroll FI, Luetje CW. Varenicline is a partial agonist at α4β2 and a full agonist at α7 neuronal nicotinic receptors. Molecular Pharmacology. 2006;70(3):801-805
  21. 21. Cichewicz RH, Kouzi SA. Chemistry, biological activity, and chemotherapeutic potential of betulinic acid for the prevention and treatment of cancer and HIV infection. Medicinal Research Reviews. 2004;24(1):90-114
  22. 22. Yogeeswari P, Sriram D. Betulinic acid and its derivatives: A review on their biological properties. Current Medicinal Chemistry. 2005;12(6):657-666
  23. 23. Pinney KG, Jelinek C, Edvardsen K, Chaplin DJ, Pettit GR. The Discovery and Development of the Combretastatins. Anticancer Agents from Natural Products. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2005. pp. 32-55
  24. 24. Zhu D-Y, Tan C-H, Li Y-M. The overview of studies on huperzine A: A natural drug for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease. In: Medicinal Chemistry of Bioactive Natural Products. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2006. p. 143
  25. 25. Hampson P, Wang K, Lord J. PEP-005. Drugs of the Future. 2005;30(10):1003-1005
  26. 26. Sneader W. Drug Prototypes and their Exploitation. Chichester, UK: Wiley Chichester; 1996
  27. 27. Nagai M, Tanaka O, Shibata S. The stereochemistry of protopanaxadiol the absolute configuration of C (20) of dammarenediol-I and-II. Tetrahedron Letters. 1966;7(40):4797-4801
  28. 28. McGregor G, Fiebich B, Wartenberg A, Brien S, Lewith G, Wegener T. Devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens): An anti-inflammatory herb with therapeutic potential. Phytochemistry Reviews. 2005;4(1):47-53
  29. 29. Kiefer M. Review about Ginkgo biloba special extract EGb 761 (ginkgo). Current Pharmaceutical Design. 2004;10(3):261
  30. 30. Maldacker J. Preclinical investigations with mistletoe (Viscum album L.) extract Iscador. Arzneimittel-Forschung. 2006;56(06):497-507
  31. 31. Guy GW, Stott CG. The Development of Sativex®—A Natural Cannabis-Based Medicine. Cannabinoids as Therapeutics. Birkhäuser Basel: Springer; 2005. pp. 231-263
  32. 32. Mann J. Murder, Magic, and Medicine. USA: Oxford University Press; 2000
  33. 33. King RE, Bomser JA, Min DB. Bioactivity of resveratrol. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2006;5(3):65-70
  34. 34. Fulda S, Debatin K-M. Resveratrol modulation of signal transduction in apoptosis and cell survival: A mini-review. Cancer Detection and Prevention. 2006;30(3):217-223
  35. 35. Smith KK, Dharmaratne HR, Feltenstein MW, Broom SL, Roach JT, Nanayakkara ND, et al. Anxiolytic effects of kava extract and kavalactones in the chick social separation-stress paradigm. Psychopharmacology. 2001;155(1):86-90
  36. 36. Bilia AR, Gallori S, Vincieri FF. St. John's wort and depression: Efficacy, safety and tolerability-an update. Life Sciences. 2002;70(26):3077-3096
  37. 37. Smith BJ, Jones HE, Griffiths RR. Physiological, subjective and reinforcing effects of oral and intravenous cocaine in humans. Psychopharmacology. 2001;156(4):435-444
  38. 38. Venugopal R, Liu RH. Phytochemicals in diets for breast cancer prevention: The importance of resveratrol and ursolic acid. Food Science and Human Wellness. 2012;1(1):1-13
  39. 39. Azwanida N. A review on the extraction methods use in medicinal plants, principle, strength and limitation. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. 2015;4(196):2167-0412.1000196
  40. 40. Organization UNID, Handa SS, Khanuja SPS, et al. Extraction Technologies for Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Trieste, Italy: Earth, Environmental and Marine Sciences and Technologies; 2008
  41. 41. Trusheva B, Trunkova D, Bankova V. Different extraction methods of biologically active components from propolis: A preliminary study. Chemistry Central Journal. 2007;1(1):13
  42. 42. Kaufmann B, Christen P. Recent extraction techniques for natural products: Microwave-assisted extraction and pressurised solvent extraction. Phytochemical Analysis. 2002;13(2):105-113
  43. 43. Dhanani T, Shah S, Gajbhiye NA, Kumar S. Effect of extraction methods on yield, phytochemical constituents and antioxidant activity of Withania somnifera. Arabian Journal of Chemistry. 2017;10:S1193-S1199
  44. 44. Rahmalia W, Fabre J-F, Mouloungui Z. Effects of cyclohexane/acetone ratio on bixin extraction yield by accelerated solvent extraction method. Procedia Chemistry. 2015;14:455-464
  45. 45. Azmir J, Zaidul IS, Rahman MM, Sharif KM, Mohamed A, Sahena F, et al. Techniques for extraction of bioactive compounds from plant materials: A review. Journal of Food Engineering. 2013;117(4):426-436
  46. 46. Rosenthal A, Pyle D, Niranjan K. Aqueous and enzymatic processes for edible oil extraction. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 1996;19(6):402-420
  47. 47. Singh RK, Sarker BC, Kumbhar BK, Agrawal YC, Kulshreshtha MK. Response surface analysis of enzyme assisted oil extraction factors for sesame, groundnut and sunflower seeds. Journal of Food Science and Technology. 1999;36(6):511-514
  48. 48. Latif S, Anwar F. Physicochemical studies of hemp (Cannabis sativa) seed oil using enzyme-assisted cold-pressing. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology. 2009;111(10):1042-1048
  49. 49. Hanmoungjai P, Pyle D, Niranjan K. Enzymatic process for extracting oil and protein from rice bran. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 2001;78(8):817-821
  50. 50. Rosenthal A, Pyle DL, Niranjan K, Gilmour S, Trinca L. Combined effect of operational variables and enzyme activity on aqueous enzymatic extraction of oil and protein from soybean. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 2001;28(6):499-509
  51. 51. Sharma A, Khare S, Gupta M. Enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction of peanut oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 2002;79(3):215-218
  52. 52. Concha J, Soto C, Chamy R, et al. Enzymatic pretreatment on rose-hip oil extraction: Hydrolysis and pressing conditions. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 2004;81(6):549-552
  53. 53. Zhang Z, Li G. A review of advances and new developments in the analysis of biological volatile organic compounds. Microchemical Journal. 2010;95(2):127-139
  54. 54. Webster B, Gezan S, Bruce T, Hardie J, Pickett J. Between plant and diurnal variation in quantities and ratios of volatile compounds emitted by Vicia faba plants. Phytochemistry. 2010;71(1):81-89
  55. 55. Lara I, Echeverría G, Graell J, López ML. Volatile emission after controlled atmosphere storage of Mondial gala apples (Malus domestica): Relationship to some involved enzyme activities. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2007;55(15):6087-6095
  56. 56. Arthur CL, Pawliszyn J. Solid phase microextraction with thermal desorption using fused silica optical fibers. Analytical Chemistry. 1990;62(19):2145-2148
  57. 57. Pawliszyn J. New directions in sample preparation for analysis of organic compounds. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 1995;14(3):113-122
  58. 58. Penalver A, Pocurull E, Borrull F, Marce RM. Trends in solid-phase microextraction for determining organic pollutants in environmental samples. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 1999;18(8):557-568
  59. 59. Mills GA, Walker V. Headspace solid-phase microextraction procedures for gas chromatographic analysis of biological fluids and materials. Journal of Chromatography A. 2000;902(1):267-287
  60. 60. Ulrich S. Solid-phase microextraction in biomedical analysis. Journal of Chromatography A. 2000;902(1):167-194
  61. 61. Koziel J, Jia M, Khaled A, Noah J, Pawliszyn J. Field air analysis with SPME device. Analytica Chimica Acta. 1999;400(1-3):153-162
  62. 62. Augusto F, e Lopes AL, Zini CA. Sampling and sample preparation for analysis of aromas and fragrances. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2003;22(3):160-169
  63. 63. Pavela R. History, presence and perspective of using plant extracts as commercial botanical insecticides and farm products for protection against insects–a review. Plant Protection Science. 2016;52(4):229-241
  64. 64. Aburjai T, Natsheh FM. Plants used in cosmetics. Phytotherapy Research. 2003;17(9):987-1000

Written By

Aman Dekebo

Submitted: 30 July 2018 Published: 04 September 2019

© 2019 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Continue reading from the same book

View All

IntechOpen Plant Extracts Edited by Aman Dekebo

Plant Extracts

Edited by Aman Dekebo

Published: 04 September 2019

Chapter 1 Traditional Chinese Medicine: From Aqueous Extract...

By Jinfan Wang, Astrid Sasse and Helen Sheridan

3953 downloads

Chapter 2 Antioxidant Activity of Faba Bean Extracts

By Wojciech Rybiński, Magdalena Karamać, Katarzyna Su...

1512 downloads

Chapter 3 Antiviral Plant Extracts

By Ganesh Kumar Anbazhagan, Sankarganesh Palaniyandi ...

2234 downloads

Introductory Chapter: Plant Extracts (2024)
Top Articles
Latest Posts
Recommended Articles
Article information

Author: Melvina Ondricka

Last Updated:

Views: 5615

Rating: 4.8 / 5 (68 voted)

Reviews: 83% of readers found this page helpful

Author information

Name: Melvina Ondricka

Birthday: 2000-12-23

Address: Suite 382 139 Shaniqua Locks, Paulaborough, UT 90498

Phone: +636383657021

Job: Dynamic Government Specialist

Hobby: Kite flying, Watching movies, Knitting, Model building, Reading, Wood carving, Paintball

Introduction: My name is Melvina Ondricka, I am a helpful, fancy, friendly, innocent, outstanding, courageous, thoughtful person who loves writing and wants to share my knowledge and understanding with you.